The long-term objectives of this proposal are to explore the tole of social comparison processes in coping with victimizing events; to identify the frequency and determinants of self-enhancing downward comparisons; to identify some of the benefits and liabilities of downward comparison as a coping process; to examine the interrelationships between psychological control and social comparison; and to identify the characteristics of victims who do and do not use social comparison processes to enhance their self-esteem. An interrelated program of experimental and field research is designed to address these issues. The first two studies whether upward and downward social comparisons are associated with the perceived controllability and uncontrollability, respectively, of a threatening event. Study One is a laboratory investigation examining this issue experimentally, and Study Two is a field investigation regarding how individuals cope with the impending Southern California earthquake, depending upon whether they perceive that they can control their risk or not. Study Three is a quasi-experimental investigation with members of cancer support groups, to explore biases in the perception of help-seeking. It addresses why individuals see their own help-seeking positively but others' help-seeking as a sign of weakness. Study Four is an interview investigation with cancer patients exploring social comparison processes. It examines how some individuals are able to use downward social comparisons to bolster self-esteem, whereas other are upset by these same kinds of comparisons. Study Five is a laboratory experimental investigation to address some potential liabilities of downward comparison. Specifically, the study examines the relationship between downward comparison as a strategy of self-evaluation and derogation of outgroups. This integrated program of research should help establish the role of social comparison, especially downward social comparison, in the coping process and identify potential psychological liabilities as well.